Organizational Design Research Worksheet

Heinz-Divisional Structure-SuccessfulThe H. J. Heinz Company, headquartered in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is the most global of all U. S. -based food companies and one of the world’s largest food-processing companies. In more than 50 countries Heinz is considered number one or number two in the market position. Beside ketchup, Heinz also sells other products ranging from sauces, meals, snacks, and infant/nutrition. Among them are our 15 Power Brands, which comprise approximately 70% of our global sales. A divisional structure is when divisions operate as autonomous businesses under the larger corporate umbrella. Because of Heinz using the divisional structure they are able to evaluate the performance of each of their departments individually. Because divisions are relatively autonomous, Heinz can take action with little to none disruption to its remaining operations. Divisions can maintain a healthy competition among themselves by sponsoring separate campaigns, different identities, etcetera. Because Heinz chose a divisional structure they have had their divisions work well together because each area is focusing on a single product and there is not the stress of trying to conduct projects across the board. Heinz’s divisional structure has lead to a culture being formed which has contributed to higher employee morale and a better knowledge of the goals and vision that Heinz is trying to accomplish. Wal-mart-International organizational structure-SuccessfulMany businesses today manufacture, purchase, and sell abroad and that’s referred to as international organizational structure. Wal-mart has been around since 1962 with the first store being in Rogers, Arkansas. The company expanded to 276 stores in 11 states by the end of the decade. When Wal-mart expanded outside the U. S. in 1992 they put a special team in place to take care of the logistics. Because of the success they had introduced a small international department oversee the overseas expansion. By the time 2002 arrived, international operations were so important to Wal-mart that the international division was split up into other geographic areas. We all know that Wal-mart has become a powerhouse worldwide and implem enting an international structure has allowed them to stay ahead of competitors. Because of this venture Wal-mart is leading the way to a more global economy and market. Chris-Southwest Airlines-SuccessfulWhen one thinks about Southwest Airlines they often will think about the one of the company’s recent slogans, â€Å"You are now free to roam the country. † However, Southwest Airlines represents more than just a catchy phrase in the world of organizations who often dare not say that another organization is doing well much less better than them, company’s often use Southwest Airlines as a benchmark, a standard, for their own organizations. Southwest Airlines view has been that of not being the norm and shaking it up a bit. They take a different approach when it comes to organizational design. The goals of the airline were to make a good profit, retain employees and give the consumer reasonably cheap flying. Southwest’s visionary organizational design of treating everyone like a person, even their employees. Southwest has become the nation’s fourth largest carrier from a customer statics standpoint. Southwest operates nearly 2,800 flights per day. Southwest has the best on-time record for ensuring that their flights leave and arrive â€Å"on-time. In addition, Southwest Airlines has the fewest customer complaints in the airline industry. In short Southwest is the only Airline that has consistently returned a profit for it’s shareholders since the company’s inception in 1973. What is the Southwest secret? The secret for Southwest is really not a secret at all rather it is based in concepts based in organizational design. Southwest uses innovation in their offering of their pr oducts and services. Southwest is simply more innovative in it’s ability to be open to new ideas and technology and simple though processes. For instance, many airlines would not sign on to fly to the â€Å"Red-neck Riveria,† but Southwest has agreed to not only sign on but to begin flights to and from it’s major hubs Baltimore, and Love’s Field. This shows innovation in that Southwest’s history has always been create flights to what other major airlines such as American or Delta just scoff at. This increase in flexibility shown by Southwest has put them above their competitors and increased overall productivity thus they have provided great returns for investors. Southwest has also shown innovation in their concept of organizational design in their approach to where they flew. By providing low fares, southwest made it easier and affordable for more people to fly. They became known as the low fare, no frills airline. One of Southwest’s organizational concepts is based upon the principle that if the customer is satisfied the company will make money. Southwest’s additional areas for differences in organizational design are in their management. Their management believes that their people are Southwest’s greatest asset. Southwest prides itself on hiring people who are not just good in their field but experienced in their field. Their mission is to have managers do things by the book and follow company policy, while leaders follow their own intuition, which may in turn be of more benefit to the company. Southwest Airlines has in many arenas achieved the recognition as being the best airline operating within the United States; and on a more personal note it has won my recognition as being the best airplane for my family and me. Chris-Google-Successful When Google went public in 2004, their history of creativity and innovation had long been a fixture and set in place. Larry Page and Sergey Brin who were Ph. d students that worked together on the Stanford Digital Library Project who incorporated Google in 1998. Since that time of incorporation in a friend’s garage in Menlo Park, CA. Google has created a culture of â€Å"why not? † They are known for their innovative culture by allowing their employees a creative and safe place where they can create and share and exchange ideas. They foster this environment in a number of ways. One of the first ways is by looking at how they approach â€Å"failure. † Failure is not considered failure at Google rather they believe that failures are lessons learned. In fact Google specifically hires individuals who â€Å"fail fast. † According to Davila, Epstein and Shelton (2006) i. e. fail fast so that not many resources are spent on developing the new ideas and fail often so that more ideas are tried and tested to eventually come-up with a successful product or idea. An additional concept by Davila, Epstein and Shelton again comes from the â€Å"top down† methodology in that when Google is in the candidate process they include in their job recruitment description that if hired the candidate will have up to 20%-35% or more time dictated solely to one’s need to create and innovate. While most companies would relegate that time to basing it solely on what would make their company look good Google is different in that they do not specify that it has to be â€Å"related† to Google business. Rather the management team at Google believes that it is a â€Å"time to step-away† from their daily grind and just â€Å"get away. † If Sherman Computer Repair was to benchmark Google they would find that Google’s management team is what makes the difference for Google. In addition, they would be able to easily implement Google’s technique of â€Å"fast failing† and learning from their mistakes. In addition, Sherman Computer Repair would also be able to learn from Google’s example of taking time in their day of just getting away to be innovative rather than always wielding control of their employees.

What are computer viruses and how do they work?

A computer virus is nothing but a programme that is built to â€Å"infect† other programs by making certain changes in that programme that render it unable to perform its designated function.During this procedure of ‘infection’, the virus also self perpetuates, in that it makes many copies of itself, so that it can then further infect other programmes, much like the viral infections that affect human beings.Surprisingly, there is so much similarity between the tow, in that during the replication process the copies are made exactly like the original, with no posttranslational modifications.Depending on what the virus was created to do, it can either delete the programmes it infects, or it can make it completely useless, and may itself turn it into an ‘infecting’ programme also.Major categories of viruses are1 Parasitic virus:   these are the most common form of virus, it attaches itself to executable files and replicates when the infected program is executed.2 Memory-resident virus: this virus attacks the main cache memory of the system, and gains access to all the programmes that are executed.3 Boot sector virus: this virus infects the boot segment, and then infects all the files that are executed from the disc4 Stealth virus: like the stealth machine, is virtually immune from anti virus softwares5 Polymorphic virus: after each infection, the virus changes its character, thus making cleaning or treatment very difficult6 Metamorphic virus: unlike the previous, the virus completely changes itself after every infection. .In the lifetime of the virus, a number of phases have been identified that allow the identification and possible clean up of the virus.1 Dormant phase: virus is not attacking in this phase. It waits for a specific trigger for which it has been programmed. It may be a particular date or a specific programme that is required. These are specific viruses, while not all viruses have been programmed to follow this phas e2   Propagation phase: virus makes multiple copies of itself to infect many files at the same time. Thus the virus may enter the files or the system areas itself.3 Triggering phase: the virus gets its signal to become activated. Having received its signal, it then assumes a position from which it can attack easily.4 Execution phase: this is the final step, when the virus actually performs the step it was made to do. Thus the virus may delete the file, make the programme corrupt, make multiple copies of itself, or whatever it was programmed to perform.Viruses are operating system specific and some even only attack specific hardwares. For example the linux operating system has not yet faced a virus attack, while the microsoft system is continuously batting many virus attacks, even the apple OS is not immune from these attacksAnother identity is a worm. This is a program that can replicate itself (like a virus), but it has the additional ability to send copies from one computer to a nother computer across network connections, via e-mails or VPN systemsReferances1 Heidari M. Malicious Codes in Depth. Accessed from   www.securitydocs.com. on 13 June, 20082 Brain M. How computer viruses worl. Accessed from www.howstuffworks.com/virus.htm on 13 June, 2008

Proffessional Ethics

Professional ethics has become more important over the years. As we become more specialized in our occupation, the issues become that much more complex – and hard. Professional people and those working in acknowledged professions exercise specialist knowledge and skill. How the use of this knowledge should be governed when providing a service to the public can be considered a moral issue and is termed professional ethics. They must complete their job according to the moral values.Professionals are capable of making judgments, applying their skills and reaching informed decisions in situations that the general public cannot, because they have not received the relevant training. One of the earliest examples of professional ethics is probably the Hippocratic oath to which medical still adhere to this day. Professional ethics is a set of standards adopted by a professional community. Professional ethics are regulated by standards, which are often referred to as codes of ethics. Th e code of ethics is very important because it gives us boundaries that we have to stay within in our professional careers.The one problem with the code of ethics is that we can't always have the answers. Professional bodies have increasingly been at work developing, revising and refining professional codes of ethics. Professionals themselves ask for more detailed codes so as to have greater guidance. There is no longer a deference to the authority of experts on the part of the public or of the client group. Professional ethics helps a professional choose what to do when faced with a problem at work that raises a moral issue.One can certainly study what professionals do when faced with such problems, and confine the enquiry to the description. Our concern here, however, is to assist with making choices – an approach called prescriptive professional ethics. Obviously one can be unethical without behaving illegally. It is a common rationalization of unethical behaviour to say â €Å"well, it wasn’t illegal, so who cares? †. It is perhaps the major point of professional ethics, though, to deal with scenarios that do not involve illegality. Professional ethics covers far more issues than the law does.Many of the issues are imbedded in messy and complex factual situations, so ethical issues tend to be harder to identify than legal issues. We should have more sympathy when someone says they were confused or ignorant or thoughtless about a moral issue, as opposed to a legal problem. How does one recognize a moral problem within professional ethics? Is the issue one of â€Å"right† or â€Å"wrong† action? Is the issue one of â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad† motives, methods or goals? Is there a â€Å"value† at stake? Is the terminology not descriptive, but prescriptive, involving words like â€Å"should†, â€Å"ought to†?We do a much better job of identifying issues in professional ethics if we are sensitive to the principles and values set out in our professional codes of ethics (that is one of their benefits – an educational function). It helps to have lists of issues available to contemplate. It is a curse of the twentieth century to speak of ethics as being subjective or relative – â€Å"it’s all a matter of personal opinion†. Moral relativism is ultimately futile and nihilistic. There can be no real debate, guidance, judgement or resolution.Those claiming relativism are usually in a position of self-rationalization. Moral absolutism is not a tenable position either, as it leads to inflexibility and a harshness that creates its own injustices. Most major corporations, and many smaller companies, now have Codes of Ethics, along with a range of other, issue-specific ethics documents. Such a document embodies the ethical commitments of your organization; it tells the world who you are, what you stand for, and what to expect when conducting business with you . Therefore, there are 2 important processes in forming this law: ) Objective There has been a dramatic increase in the ethical expectations of businesses and professions over the past ten years. Increasingly, customers, clients and employees are deliberately seeking out those who define the basic ground rules of their operations on a day to day Why have a Code of Ethics? †¢ To define accepted/acceptable behaviours; †¢ To promote high standards of practice; †¢ To provide a benchmark for members to use for self evaluation; †¢ To establish a framework for professional behaviour and responsibilities; †¢ As a vehicle for occupational identity; As a mark of occupational maturity;† Different kinds of documents serve different purposes. Is your new document intended to  guide  people or to set out requirements? Is it really a Code of Ethics that you need? You might consider creating a Statement of Values, a Policy, a Mission Statement or a Code of Conduct . Ideally, a code of ethics should be tailored to the needs and values of your organization. Ask yourself, what makes your Code specific to your organization? Is there anything that differentiates it from similar documents devised other firms in your field, or in other fields?If not, what makes it your Code, other than the fact that your logo is at the top? Your Code should make clear who within your organization will be governed by it. Does it cover everyone from the mailroom through to the boardroom? Only senior managers? Who has to sign off on it? Keep in mind that lower-level employees may not take very seriously a document that senior managers either aren’t bound by, or take lightly Many ethics codes have two components. First, an  aspirational  section, often in the preamble, that outlines what the organization aspires to, or the ideals it hopes to live up to.Second, an ethics code will typically list some  rules or principles, which members of the organization wi ll be expected to adhere to. In order to ensure the objective of the law will be reached, it is important to get the people who will be guided by the code be actively involved in writing it. If your organization is too large to get everyone involved, consider selecting representatives from various departments or various business units. The document is bound to be more meaningful, and find higher levels of acceptance, if employees are part of the process.It’s a good idea to consult key stakeholders – including, for example, customers, suppliers, and local community groups – as to what they think should be in your Code. This will help reveal what important external constituencies see as your key obligations, and will help make sure that the Code you write deals with the full range of issues that might confront your organization. 2) Planning After you have reached the objective of the code, you must make proper planning so that the code can be formed and implemente d on the time stipulated by your organization’s management. How will the Code be implemented?Once it’s written, will it gather dust, or will it influence policy and practice? What procedures are in place to make sure that writing a Code is more than just organizational navel-gazing? An effective implementation scheme (perhaps as an appendix to the Code) will explain to all concerned how the values embodied in your Code will be put into practice. You must also plan for education. It is a key aspect of implementation has to be employee training and education. How will employees be educated about the Code? A Code can only be effective if your employees know about it.Will new employees receive training regarding the Code’s requirements? Will current employees receive refresher courses? Especially for large organizations, the steps required to train employees on the requirements of a Code deserve special attention. Other than that, you must also be clear about enforc ement. How, if at all, will the Code be enforced? Are there specific penalties for violating the Code, or is the Code merely there to provide guidance? Who will decide when an employee has violated the Code – will that be up to the employees' immediate supervisor, or will that be the exclusive domain of senior managers?Last but not least, you must specify a sunset date. When will the code be reviewed and updated? Times change, and new issues come to light, so consider specifying a date for revising and refreshing your Code. What is the role of a professional code of ethics? It helps clarify values and rules, it strengthens group identity and collegiality, it fosters public confidence, and it can be used as a framework for discipline. The â€Å"audience† is the public, employers, clients, and fellow professionals. A code of ethics can be inspirational, educational, a tool for decision-making and a reference point.One can also criticize over reliance on a code of ethics. It can instil complacency (â€Å"we’re ethical because we have a code of ethics†). If it isn’t used or enforced, the suspicion may be it’s there simply to polish the group’s public image or to bolster a professional monopoly. It must be said that a code of ethics doesn’t create ethics and it is not really possible to completely codify ethics. Collateral education is necessary to bring a code of ethics alive. Most professional ethics cases have to do with conflicts. A moral dilemma is a conflict.We may have a clash between risk to human life and property interests, or a clash between risk to human life and risk to the environment. However, a common type of conflict is a â€Å"conflict of interest†. This usually refers to a conflict between one’s professional duties and one’s personal interests. As mentioned above, these case may not be true moral dilemmas, although they may be painful to resolve. A â€Å"bad faith† decision by a professional can involve the use of one’s position or powers to obtain a personal benefit – the powers or position have been used for a purpose other than for which they were granted.Sometimes there is an overlap with the law. It is a criminal offence to receive a â€Å"secret commission†. The protection of property is often denigrated as a value. It compares poorly with â€Å"human life†. We have already seen in the Burgess and Mullen study that â€Å"economic pressure† was the most common reason for ethical misbehaviour. It is an issue that the professional must guard against in his her own decision making, as well as an issue to watch for in others. Others will not go along because of the cost (a property interest). When risk to life is high, there is little doubt which way we should go.Where there is resistance, the professional has a duty to be honest and forceful and not to â€Å"go along†. Someone else may have the aut hority to make the decision and they then assume the liability, ethically and legally. Where the person in authority is unreasonable and dishonest, the situation may cry out for â€Å"whistleblowing† on the part of the professional. This should first take the form of â€Å"internal whistleblowing† as in an obvious case, some other senior person will see the light. On occasion, the external authorities must be called. A professional has less job security than a non-professional, and it is self imposed.The right thing to do is to withdraw services, but such cases should be very rare. Many codes of ethics refer to relations with colleagues. It is useful to distinguish between duties to the profession as an institution and duties to professional colleagues. They are not the same. What does it mean to say that the professional will not bring the profession into disrepute? If the efforts of colleagues will be undermined by a general loss of reputation and credibility resulti ng from personal misconduct of an individual, the wrong-doer may be doing far more harm indirectly than directly.The issue is not, as some might believe, a loss of income, prestige or position of colleagues, it is a reduction in the protection to the client group or public that is the harm done. Professionals must be vigilant that they are not protecting their self-interest when the profession is attacked or its reputation impugned, but are protecting the interests of others. As for relations with colleagues on an individual basis, a professional is required to be cooperative, respectful, supportive, helpful, open-minded as well as open, and without blatant or crude competition. Competition is good, but it must be meritocratic and honest.And it is of the essence of professionalism that discipline is maintained. It is an essential element of professionalism, and it is often referred to directly in codes of ethics, that one must engage in professional development throughout oneâ€℠¢s career. The idea of continuous improvement in professional knowledge and skills is actually implicit in the standard of the reasonable peer. There is a duty to take courses, read the literature, attend conferences, and so on. Many professional groups encourage (if not enforce) this through mandatory â€Å"maintenance points† – you can lose your designation if you cannot show upgrading over time.Many codes refer to â€Å"integrity† as a value – â€Å"maintain the highest standards of integrity†. It seems vague at first. Integrity means a consistency in commitment to moral commitments. Integrity  is a concept of  consistency  of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and  truthfulness  or  accuracy  of one's actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy,  in that integrity regards internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests tha t parties holding apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs.The word â€Å"integrity† stems from the Latin adjective  integer  (whole, complete). In this context, integrity is the inner sense of â€Å"wholeness† deriving from qualities such as  honesty  and consistency of  character. As such, one may judge that others â€Å"have integrity† to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold. A  value system's  abstraction depth  and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with observation.A value system may evolve over time  while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies. Commitment to commitments means one’s moral character must be consistent, whole and integrated. You don’t have â€Å"int egrity† if you are committed to conflicting standards or values. Your behaviour would become erratic and inconsistent. Integrity is related to other values, such as honesty. To be true to a system of values, one must be honest. A person with integrity will admit errors, refrain from false pretences and advise clients truthfully.Integrity is related to promise keeping – one must follow through on promises. A professional should be careful about what is promised. If you can’t deliver on your promises, your integrity is said to be jeopardized. Integrity is also related to loyalty – loyalty to one’s profession, the goals of the profession, loyalty to the employer’s goals. Loyalty should not be blind, however, and so other values may be in conflict with loyalty if the employer’s goals are not in themselves worthy in the circumstances. Do remember that a code of ethics will not solve all ethical problems.But we must remember that good laws, if they are not obeyed, do not constitute good government. Hence there are two parts of good government; one is the actual obedience of citizens to the laws, the other part is the goodness of the laws which they obey. (2567 words) REFERENCES: 1) C. A. Brincat and V. S. Wike, Morality and the Professional Life: Values at Work. Prentice Hall Inc. , (2000). 2) Pamela S. Lewis, Stephen H. Goodman, Patricia M. Fandt, Management Challenges for Tomorrow’s Leaders, 4th Edition, Thomson, South Western. (2004) 3) Chris MacDonald, Ph. D. – Gene Marks, ed. , Streetwise Small Business Book of Lists, Adams Media 2006.

Lab Report 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Lab Report 2 - Essay Example Short tandem repeat or STR is polymorphic DNA loci present on chromosome containing repeated nucleotide sequence having two to seven nucleotides repeat. The number of repetition of this nucleotide is unique to particular individual and hence can be use as signature for that particular individual. After realization of STR profiling assay many companies have come out with commercial kit for easy analysis and reproducibility. AmplSTR COfiler PCR kit developed by applied biosystems is one of them. It amplifies 6 somatic STR loci along with one sex determination or amelogenin STR loci. Kit also includes positive and negative standard and amplified STR directly load in to 3100 Avant genetic analyzer and STR profile will be obtained by given software. In case of unknown criminal STR profile is matched with CODIS database to search for probable suspect. Crimes and criminal has become an integrated part of human society and the constant evolution of criminal procedure and sophistication used by criminals makes it huge task for crime investigators to identified criminals. The science used in crime investigation is known as forensic science which utilizes various scientific methodologies to identify the criminals and establish the links between crime and criminals. The biggest challenges in front of forensic experts includes very little sample at crime site, mixing up of evidences, and many in many cases completely burn victims etc. Development of DNA based identification system has revolutionized the way forensic science was operated. The biggest advantage of DNA based techniques is the requirement of very small amount of biological samples which includes blood, hair, semen or any body parts etc. Similarly, one can obtain DNA sample from highly decomposed or burned victim’s bodies. There are several reports where DNA based tec hniques are employed to

Gender equality, Islamic Law and the Modern Muslim state Essay

Gender equality, Islamic Law and the Modern Muslim state - Essay Example The issue of gender equality in Islam was not a central notion nor was it addressed until the 20th century by Muslim jurists. The status of Men and Women in Islam is continuously explained by the Muslim scholars in the light of teachings of Islam and Holy Quran. The Islamic laws negated the modern authoritative position attributed to men in modern states and gave equal rights to the women. Although Islam has given equal rights to women, the misinterpretation of its laws and principles has exposed the religion as a typecast. Islam permits women to hold any office outside her home as long as that post is not derogatory to the feminine nature. The only condition which Islam presses on the women is that their working outside their homes should not be a source of embarrassment for them and their families and must not harm their reputation as a woman and a human being. It also impresses on the women to strike a balance between their jobs outside their homes and their duties as a mother or a wife. The teachings of Islam also do not forbid Muslim women to interact with the opposite gender in public as per the requirement of their jobs . However, the gender gap index of the world in 2009 shows that most Muslim countries have performed below the global average and are not showing any signs of improvements in the previous years. Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Algeria and Bahrain however, remain an exception to this. Yemen was rated at the bottom of the 134 nations graded for gender score index in 2009 . Additionally, it has been reported continuously that most of the Muslim women are denied basic human rights, ranging from permission of a guardian for marriage to abeyance of husband in all fields of life. Most of the people also blame Islam for the frequent incidents of Muslim men torturing women and providing them with below par living standards. According to experts on the subject, the true identity of Islam prevailed for a very brief period after its inception. Initially the Umayyads played havoc with the principles of Islam and then the Abbasids inflicted much of the damage to the concept of the religion. It did not end he re and the monarchs who ruled Iran continued to distort the religion by forcing their women to submit to the will of men. Another factor responsible for inequality of gender in Islam is colonialism. From 20th century onwards, colonialism has had a profound effect on the internal and external structure of the society. Through this concept, the already established norms and traditions were completely destroyed and novel foreign norms were imposed. It also exaggerated the existing gender divisions and labor roles of the two genders. Resultantly, the Islamic society completely collapsed with an environment of complete confusion. Men tried to find solace in rigid cultural customs e.g. forcing their women to cover themselves with veils and making them invisible in the eyes of the society. So much so that the princesses of once Mughul Empire were forced to indulge in prostitution. However, experts believe that understanding the complete scenario is essential before criticizing the principl es of another religion. The religious experts of Islam believe that Quran has given spiritual and moral equality to both men and women. This is clear from many verses in Quran clearly which spell out that men and women in Islam are in fact each other’s protectors and complement each other. There is a strong bond of respect between the two genders and

Unit 2 in my backyard Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Unit 2 in my backyard - Research Paper Example Most of these posters are often located at the market place and bus terminus since most people pass through those points. In our community, sometimes the public health agency visit people’s homes to provide free vaccinations and immunizations. These people are commonly seen only when there is a national disaster and there is need for people to get medical services at personal level. In case of outbreaks of polio, these people also visit homes to immunize young children below the age of 5 years (Mitch 2010). Doctors in our community do not provide health information while they work in their health rooms. This practice has been going for so long since they claim it is not their jobs to go around spreading health information to people, but theirs is to treat. In our community, people get health information too from the media. Radios and televisions usually provide good media coverage on certain important medical facts and people come to learn from

The relationship of leadership to the politics of the organization Essay

The relationship of leadership to the politics of the organization - Essay Example (Fryer, 2004: 342) Upon examining the case of George Latour, the researcher will discuss the leadership style used by George followed by assessing the appropriateness of the leadership style. On the part of Shelley, the researcher will provide some recommended strategies that she could employ to enable her to better manage her boss. Prior to the main discussion, the researcher will assess the relative political position of George and Shelley as well as its implications on the leader-follower behavior. It is clear that George has been practicing autocratic or authoritarian leadership style. (Clark, 2005) Despite Shelley’s expertise in Marketing, George unconsiously directs Shelley on her every move causing her to feel very much demotivated with her job. In general, the use of authoritarian leadership style is more appropriate when the leader is training a new employee without any form of actual experience with the job. (Clark, 2005) Since Shelley has gained several successful experiences in the field of Marketing, George should apply a delegative or ‘free reign’ leadership style to empower Shelley to be a part of important Marketing-related decision-making. (Clark, 2005) When applying the delegative leadership style, George should develop a clear organizational goal which will serve as a guide on where the company as a team should focus. Upon discussing with Shelley her main goal, George should give her an ultimatum of three- to six-months period to come up with a good Marketing result. (Lawrie, 2004: 38) George should learn and adopt the transformational leadership style. (Goodnight, 2004: 36) In general, transformational leaders are the ones that do not practice positional authority. Instead of using authoritative leadership style, transformational leaders are committed to train and develop the rest of employees to become a leader

What are the arguements for and against the death penalty. examples Essay

What are the arguements for and against the death penalty. examples should be based on the USA - Essay Example In December of that year, Captain George Kendall was shot dead by firing squad in Jamestown, USA. He was executed on charges of creating discord and fostering mutiny. The second reported execution was that of Daniel Frank in the year 1622 in the Colony of Virginia on charges of theft. Thereafter the death penalty had become common in the criminal justice system of the United States2. Imposing death penalty on minors aged below eighteen years and its legality had been discussed in the case of Sanford v Kentucky. The jury in that case rejected the basic assumption that the death penalty could not be imposed on minors and juveniles, in conformity with the 8th Amendment to the Constitution. This amendment prohibits cruel and unusual punishments against juveniles. However, it was held that juvenile criminals, who were sixteen years or older, could be executed. The Court held that the death penalty could not be deemed to be cruel and unusual punishment. It also maintained that the founders of the Bill of Rights and the Constitution did not consider the death penalty to be cruel and unusual punishment. Justice Scalia based his ruling on the changing standards of decency. Taking this decision as a precedent, most states in the US had imposed the death penalty on juvenile delinquents who were sixteen years of age. Justice Brenan opposed this decision and argued that such juvenile executions were in the breach of evolving standards of humanity in the US3. The supporters of capital punishment have come up with two principal justifications for its continuance. First, the death penalty is essential for the safety of citizens; and secondly, there have been attempts to eliminate some of the more barbaric practices involved in such punishment. To this end, executions are being conducted in places, where the general public is not granted access. Moreover, governments have supplanted the conventional methods of causing death, like hanging, with neoteric

What finding meaning in life is for you Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What finding meaning in life is for you - Essay Example As we transition from childhood to adulthood, our experiences and mental capacities steer us in different directions. For example, in a school with 200 students who go through the same syllabus and share the same experiences, not all of them end up in similar careers. Some will find fulfillment in music, others will be inclined to pursue art, while some will end up settling in politics. In all the students, however, the common denominator is the fact that each of them sees their futures in different areas (Zimmerman 34). Individuals gravitate towards different things when seeking meaning in life, and this is what lead to fulfillment in different aspects. Meaning in life changes over time, but it can also be rigid. Again, this comes back to individual preferences and character. For example, at some point (e.g., in college) some people seek professional prosperity over other issues. However, once they attained this they start leaning towards other interests that they think are just as important in life. For example, a senior student in college may think, for a long time that getting a good job is the essence of life (Zimmerman 49). However, after building a successful career, the student may discover that having a family is the most important thing in life. As such, the career becomes secondary to family life. Other individuals may discover a newfound passion for business and community service, and then consider this to be the basis for their lives, relegating previous meanings to minor roles. The essence of a human being is to understand oneself and becoming self-actualized. This is part of finding meaning in life and that is what separates humans from animals. Human beings need to become aware of their surroundings, their priorities, and their trajectories (Zimmerman 83). In general, people who can be classified as having no meaning in life are often less

Criticism of the movie '' City of God'' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Criticism of the movie '' City of God'' - Essay Example Additionally, this society never valued the right of others. For instance, despite being bathed in golden lights and amber moods, children were being kicked around like football. Furthermore, the City of God is often expected to flourish in light throughout or all the time. However, it was full of darkness at some points. The darkness in this film is characterized not only y the frequent blackouts it experiences, but also by the action of its people. Nonetheless, the film is produced in a captivating style that is appealing to the audience. The storyline is perfect and well formulated. The film portrays the social issues that happened in a society. The society in question is Brazilian society that needed quick interventions. Furthermore, despite the film’s setting being based in a Brazilian society, its message of rotten vices in was far reaching with some of the crimes being global concerns. The problems and damages caused by gang groups have continued to affect many parts of the global society including cities in the United States. It is also worth noting that the film depicted immense creativity particularly in reflecting real life violence in a society. Additionally, the creativity is in the use of slang language that makes the film truly local and appealing to its targeted audience. In addition, the music that changes depending on the scenes significantly adds value to the success of this film. The director and produ cer of the film also ensured that the cinematography and writing were also perfectly related. The written script of the film portrayed the vices in the society and the same I well brought in play by the cinema presented by the film. Notably, the first expression in the film is the lack of peace and order in the society. This theme strikes everywhere and it is what leads to criminal activities such as murder, theft and rape. One of

CLIENT LETTER Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CLIENT LETTER - Assignment Example Also, if there is anything you forgot to mention previously or is missing, please be certain to notify our offices immediately. According to our last meeting you explained that you are a single parent with a sole responsibility for your four-year-old daughter, Angie. Your boyfriend with whom you had this child left when the child was two years old. Even though you know where the boyfriend is living, neither you nor Angie has had any contact with him for two years. An incident happened approximately a week ago; you picked your daughter up at day care after work and you needed to stop at the grocery store before going home. While at the grocery, Angie was misbehaving and was taking items off the shelf and putting them into the cart. Despite several verbal reprimands, Angie continued to disobey you. You then slapped Angie’s hands making her to begin wailing thus attracting the attention of several customers in the store. After purchasing your groceries, you pushed Angie to the car. As you were putting Angie into the car seat, you noticed something protruding from one of the pockets of Angie’s dress. When you pulled it out, you realized that Angie had taken candy bars and gum from the shelves next to the checkout line and put them in her pockets. You wanted to make sure that your daughter understood that taking things without paying for them is wrong as it amounted to stealing. So, you shook her several times, slapped her hands, and then put her hand over Angie’s mouth when she began screaming. Angie then bit your hand, prompting you to instinctively slap her across the face. Even though you did not mean to hurt her, everything was happening very fast. Angie suddenly became very quiet, so you shut the backdoor to the car and drove home. After 10 minutes of driving, you realized that she had not heard from Angie since they

The Importance of College Essay Example for Free

The Importance of College Essay Higher education can be very beneficial to the individual and to the broader community. The common conception that higher education would mean higher pay is proven to be true. Not only is college beneficial to the individuals, but in the long-run, it helps their communities as well. College-graduates can provide their communities with new businesses and a better skilled work-force. Therefore, it would be an advantageous for people to attend college as it will promise a brighter future. College education was said to be beneficial even in the earliest years of American history. One of the many people who advocated college was Thomas Jefferson, â€Å"The less wealthy people†¦ by the bill for a general education, would be qualified to understand their rights, to maintain them, and to exercise with intelligence their parts of self-government†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (88). His writings about education has shaped the early decades of America’s schooling system. He thought that education would help to ensure the equality of all people in the country. Higher education was thought to be beneficial to early America because it was supposed to preserve the nation’s democracy. Schools like Harvard in 1636 and Yale in 1701 strongly approved of a good education. The colonies of America directly supported many of the early colleges (Rudolph 492). In the 1950s, The Truman Commission on Higher Education helped push the community college movement. They said that education would promote â€Å"equal liberty and equal opportunity to differing individuals and groups† (Ostar 168). This group wanted the citizens of America to be able to understand their rights and duties in the democratic nation. Typically, today’s belief about college is that it provides better economic benefits. These benefits could be higher status jobs and better pay. These beliefs stem from many sources. Every year, newspaper and television would feature stories about the current college graduates and their future jobs. These stories contribute to giving the public the idea that college is about success. President Bill Clinton gave a speech at Princeton University about the significance of going to college. He proclaimed that a higher education would lead to better individual economic interest. He continues to say that â€Å"Two years of college earn a quarter of a million dollars more than their high school counter-parts over a lifetime† (Reaping 20). Policymakers encouraged people to attend college when they allowed forty billion dollars over five years to be used for better development of education. Because of all the publicity associating with better pay, many Americans now believe the same. There has been research to confirm the views of higher education and higher pay. Schultz, Becker, and Mincer formally proved the relationship of the two. Becker said investments in human capital would increase in value as the individual’s skills increased. Education was said to be an investment that would later return with positive outcomes. Leslie and Brinkman estimate that mean rate of return to obtaining an undergraduate education was about 12. 4 percent (Reaping 145). Berger and Black university of Kentucky’s Center for Business and Economic Research said, â€Å"The most enduring economic impact of the universities is the increased earning power that students take with them into the job market† (NELA). They convey that college education would help the individuals throughout their life. They would contribute to the nation by starting new business with a better labor force. Better education may also have a beneficial effect on civil society. Civil society could be strengthened by community involvement and organization that helps keep communities together. It is thought that higher education prompts people to volunteer, donate to charities, and overall help their community. It is estimated by the Kentucky Long-Term Policy Research Center that people with better education are more likely to be involved in their community and participate in leadership activities. These college-educated participants are likely to be in a group to solve problems for their community. They concluded that a person doubles their probability to be a leader of a community if they have a four-year degree or higher compared to a high school graduate. Individuals were surveyed about donating to charities. 85 percent of high school graduates responded â€Å"yes† while 93 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher did the same (NELA). Since Fall 2002, there are more people with college degrees than ever before. Workers who attended college went from 26 percent to 33 percent between 1992 and 2000. This is because employers like workers who have graduated from college more compared to non-graduates. Studies have shown that college-graduates are generally better at â€Å"creative thinking, effective communication, problem solving, organization, teamwork, research, and decision making† (NELA). People with a college degree are half as likely to be without a job compared to people who are high school graduates. This is because many managers generally feel that college-graduates are more determined and serious about their job. Managers also tend to give more promotions to the college-graduates over the non-graduates (NELA). Higher education can lead to public economic benefits. These improvements generally help the nation’s economy as a whole. This comes from the peoples participations with better education. Increased tax revenues would mean that the nation is better off. In 1994, college-graduates paid 71 percent of all federal incomes taxes. Better education would also mean better productivity. America’s productivity has increased over the last twenty years because of the steady increase of the quality of education. Increased consumption would also be good for the nation because it would lead to a stronger economy. Studies have shown that the increase of consumption is direct result of better education. Since the economic system is always changing, higher education has allowed the workforce to be more flexible because they gain generalized skills such as critical thinking, writing, and communication. The final public economic benefit is that college-graduates are less likely to rely on government assistance programs for living, such as Food Stamps, Medicaid, housing assistance, and other programs (Reaping 15). There are many individual economic benefits with higher education. College-graduates earn more in both their lifetime and annual incomes. In 1995, a person with a bachelor’s degree earned 73 percent more money than a high school graduate. There have been studies to prove that people who went to college earn better fringe benefits such as vacations and health care. College-graduates are hired at a higher consistency. In 1998, unemployment has decreased for people with a bachelor’s degree. People with only a high school diploma are three times as likely to be without a job. Another benefit of having a college degree is improved working conditions. These people enjoy air conditioned heated rooms with other benefits like computers. Overall, their working conditions are better than high school counterparts. Research has told us that college graduates are better at changing jobs. This is because they have learned more skills to apply to a broader range of differing jobs. The Census Bureau’s survey says that â€Å"those with a bachelor’s degree or more have higher value interest earning assets, home equity, and other financial assets† (Reaping 16). There are public social benefits that stem from college graduates. Out of a population of 100,000, there were 122 prisoners with college experience compared to 1,829 prisoners with some high school education. A study showed that 77 percent of people with college degrees help their communities by volunteering compared to only 45 percent of high school graduates. Another public social benefit is that there are better voter turnouts with college graduates. In 1992, 79 percent of college educated people ages 25-44 voted; this is compared to 50 percent of those with only a high school diploma and 27 percent of those without a high school diploma. Studies have shown that the offspring of the better educated parents have a better chance to go to college. The daughters of the college graduates are less likely to have unexpected pregnancies. College-educated people also have more free time. They have time to read more literature than high school graduates. They also visit theme parks, museums and sporting events at higher rates (Reaping 23). With all these great benefits from college education, there is no reason why students shouldn’t go to college. The experience will stay with the individual throughout their life. Their private economic benefits are better, while simultaneously helping their nation with public economic benefits. College education is the way to a brighter and more prosperous future for all. Works Cited Jefferson, Thomas. The autobiography of Thomas Jefferson, 1743-1790: together with a summary of the chief events in Jeffersons life. New York: Dover Publications, 2005. Print. NELA. NELA. N. p. , n. d. Web. 1 Oct. 2013. Ostar, Allan W. Colleges and universities for change: Americas comprehensive public state colleges and universities. New York: AASCU Press, 1987. Print. Reaping the benefits: defining the public and private value of going to college: the new millennium project on higher education costs, pricing, and productivity. Washington, D. C. : The Institute for Higher Education, 1998. Print. Rudolph, Frederick. The American college and university, a history. 1st ed. New York: Alferd. A. Knopf, 1990. Print.

The enhancing effects of music on happiness

The enhancing effects of music on happiness This thesis examines the enhancing effects of music on happiness.Music is the purest form of art. It can be said that it has an impact on almost everyone. Certain pieces of music have a relaxing effect, while others stimulate us to act, and some cause change in or emphasize our mood. This work specifically concentrates on how listening to different kinds of music can increase the level of happiness and the factors associated with it. Defining Music The word music basically comes from the Greek word mousike meaning art of the muses.As generally percieved, music is one of the fine arts which is concerned with the combinition of sounds with beauty of form and the expression of thought or feeling.It can be defined as vocal or instrumental sounds having some degree of rhythm, melody and harmony. According to the Australian Oxford dictionary (2004), music is the art of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form,harmony and expression of emotion. The Collins dictionary (2000) relates music as an art form consisting of sequences of sounds in time, especially tones of definite pitch organized melodically, harmonically,rhythmically and according to color. Music is also known as, the art of combining sounds so as to please the ear (Chambers dictionary,1987) . Music is also viewed as an art that is difficult to tie down . According to Wikipedia , the definition of music varies according to culture and social context. The artists may view music as a performing art, a fine art, and an auditory art .William Sheakspeare has defined it as as the food of soul.Humanistic psychologists view music as a means of self fulfillment,integration and self actualiztion.For existentialists it is another department of choice and freedom. Music in any form has a universal appeal, like an international language,it is understood and spoken everywhere,and its charm and penetrating power cannot be denied.(Malik, M.S., 1983). Components of Music According to a physicists point of view, music consists of a set of a set of sounds with particular frequencies, amplitudes, and timbres which are organized into highly predictable patterns. The social and cultural meanings by people turn these sounds into music (Hargreaves, D. J and North, A. C., 2000).The components of music are, Musical note is a single sound of definite pitch and duration which can be identified in writing. Rhythm, is the arrangement of sounds in time, this arrangement is a complex arrangement of notes into a mixture of short and long durations within a single bar or a series of bars. Regular pulse groupings are called bars or measures. Rhythm is one of the most central features of many styles of music, especially jazz and hip-hop (Lerdahl Jackendoff, 1983). Scale, is a progression of notes in an ascending or descending order. Melody or tune assembles a series of notes into recognizable musical shapes. The notes of a melody are created with respect to pitch systems such as scales. A melody usually though not necessarily possesses rhythm. The rhythm of a melody is often based on the tones of language, the physical rhythms of dance or just periodic beatings. (Narveson, 1984). The beat of a piece of music is its regular pulse, determined by the bar lines by which music are metrically determined. Pitch, is the height or depth of a note in relation to other notes or in relation to an absolute pitch. The absolute pitch has internationally been set at A=400 Hz that is, the A above the middle c has a frequency of 440 cycles or vibrations per second. Pitch is determined by the sounds frequency of vibration. The process of assigning note names to pitches is called tuning. The difference in frequency between two pitches is called an interval. The interval indicates either the doubling or halving of the base frequency. (Machlis Kristine, 2007) Harmony is the study of vertical sonorities in music. A vertical sonority refers to considering the relationship between pitches that are together. Harmony can also be implied by melodies that outline a harmonic structure. A larger structure involving multiple pitches is called a chord (Darmschroder Williams, 1990).Harmony in music can be analyzed through Roman numeral system. A system of chord symbols is used in popular and jazz music. (Friberg, 1991). Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music .It is described as the number of parts or lines and their relationship. The perceived texture of a musical piece can be affected by the interval between each musical line, the timbre of instruments or the number of instruments used. Monophony, homophony and polyphone include musical textures. Monophony is the texture of a melody. The texture of homophony is achieved when a melody is accompanied by chords. The melody in homophony is usually voiced in high notes. Polyphony consists of several simultaneous melodies of equal importance (Temperly, 2001). Form, is a feature of musical theory that explores the concept of musical syntax, on a local and global level. The syntax is often explained in terms of phrases and periods or sections or genre respectively. (Juslin, 2003). 1.1.2 Musical Instruments The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BC. (Wikipedia).People of different cultures have developed musical instruments of their own distictive fashion,the sounds of these instruments thus,affect different prople differently.Some distict musical instruments are, Sitar, it has been the king of indian court music since 14th century. It is the modification of an earlier instrument,the Keena.The sitar is made of teak,jackwood and a seasoned gourd.Its neck towers above the players head while it is played.It mainly has six or seven playing strings running above the feet and below them, a dozen or so sympathetic strings,that set up a steady running echo.The sitar is played with a wireplectrum worn on the right finger of the sitarist.The sitar music is a world in itself.Learning to play the instrument with proficiency needs ten or twelve years of intensive study(Bhattacharya, McDonald Carter,2008). Rebab, is the name for various Arabic bow string instruments found in Islamic countries. They occur usually with three strings in various shapes like elongated boats, trapezoid rectangles etc. The Rebab was both carried eastwards and westwards with the spread of Islam (Kartomi, 1990). Guitar is a string instrument, originally brought to Spain by the moors in the middle ages. It has a flat back. The modern instrument has six strings. The guitar is a popular instrument used to provide a simple choral accomplishment to a dance or a song. Flute, is a cylindrical tube closed at the upper end where these is a side hole, though which the player bows air and makes the internal air column vibrate. The modern flute was largely developed by T.Bohm, he made it possible to pierce finger-holes in correct positions. The flute did not come into general use in chamber and orchestral music until 18th century (Taylor, 1992). Saxophones are classified as members of the single reed family. Saxophone was invented in about 1840 by Adolph Sax, a Belgian instrument maker. Saxophones are regular members of dance bands military bands and are also used to play distinctive solo in orchestral work. The sound of the saxophone is extremely variable. Its timbre being intermediate between wood and brass, it passes from the softness of flute over the broad, mellow tone of cells to the metallic strength of the coronet (Ingham, 1998). Drum, is the generic name for instruments consisting of skin stretched over a frame or vessel and struck with the hands or a sticks. The drum was introduced in the western world through Greece (Kinnear, 1985). Tabla, is a type of an oriental drum. It exists in different forms. The Indian table is a single headed drum resembling a small tympano, having a similar sound. The Arabic tabla is beaten by the hands and the tone is much drier than that of the Indian instrument (Holroyde, 1972). Xylophone is a set of tuned wooden bars beaten with sticks. The bars usually rest in a frame and are arranged in order of pitch. Most xylophones are provided with resonators, either in the form of a cradle shaped box under the bars, or in the form of a separate gourd for each bar gourd for each bar. When playing the xylophone, the player uses mallets of various weights and hardness according to the quality of tone required.( Nettl Bruno ,1956). Piano, Classicism is the greatest and the best known period of piano music. The pianist uses a flexible system of levers connected by four joints, knuckles, wrist, elbow and shoulders. It can also be played by placing the finger on the key and raising the arm slightly in a relaxed action. Piano is a mechanical instrument through which the notes are produced by the strike of keys (Krumhansl, 1997). Violin is the most important of the stringed instruments in the orchestra as well as in chamber and solo music. Its main parts are the, body consisting of label sound board, back and ribs (sidewalks), the finger board, string holder, the bridge. The violin provides expressiveness ranging from soft lyricism to extreme dramatic excitement and a sensitive timbre (Cremer, 1984). Harmonium is a keyboard instrument that sounds by means of thin metal tongues being set in vibration by a steady current of air which is provided by a pair of pedal operated bellows. The metal tongues act as free reeds. Modern harmonium can produce expressive graduations of sounds by means of the expression stop. The harmonium was developed in the 19th century from a number of experimental instruments (Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica (11th Ed.), 1911). Types of Music The aim of all music is to touch the core of the heart and thus music can be called an expression of our hearts sayings. Different types of music help in soothing ones disturbed soul, in the growth of concentration and also cheer us up to live life to the fullest. There are various types of music as people have different tastes i.e., classical music, rock, hip-hop, folk, opera, mystical etc. The objective behind listening to music remains the same. Classical music is a complex form of music as it requires high musical skills like learning the ragas and ability to coordinate with other musicians .The one who wants to learn, he/she has to go through proper training in this field of music (Bhattacharyya, 2008). Rock music, originated in the rock n roll era of 1950s. The singers are accompanied by a guitar, bass and drum. Certain rock groups use pianos, saxophones, flute, mandolin and sitar for a deeper effect. This type of music has several subtypes such as hard rock, progressive rock and metal rock. All these types of rock music are popular to date.(Warren , Romanowski Parles ,2001). Hip-hop (Pop-Music) music always includes the use of instruments such as guitar, violin, fiddle, piano, bass and drums. In these types of music, the bass is the main instrument. This can be used in different intensities to emote feelings of anger, pride and others. This type of music is the result of hip-hop culture and is known as hip-hop music. This music shows a heavy influence of Jamaican music. The roots of the music are found in African American and West African music. (Light, 1999). Folk music is a kind of traditional music that is handed down from generations in every culture. Folk music shows the social upheaval that lies among various classes of people. This also portrays their struggle for survival and their culture (Bhattacharyya, 2008).The term can be applied to music that has been evolved from rudimentary beginnings by a community uninfluenced by popular and art music and it can likewise be applied to music which has originated with an individual composer and has subsequently been absorbed into the unwritten living tradition of a community. It is the re-fashioning and re-creation of the music by the community that gives it a folk character (Lloyd, 1975). Opera music first emerged in Italy in the 17th century. This genre of music a remarkable combination of theatrical art and musical inventions and is specifically played in theatres. This has greater demand for its amusing orchestral supplements. The introduction and interval of this music set the tone for the action on stage. (Grout Williams, 2003). Mystical music Music is an outburst of the soul  .Mystic music includes spacious, contemplative, heartfelt, trance inducing and psychedelic sounds in such genres as space music, electronic, ambient, visionary, acoustic, world fusion, classical, neo-classical, and even some progressive rock; a mix of entrancing drones, structures, and rhythms. Mystic music extends from Bach to rock. Mystic music is that kind of sonorous sound experience that lifts and awakens you above normal consciousness, even if only for a few moments. If you listen sensitively, it puts you in touch with your most special memories and forgotten dreams. It is relaxing and good for your plants (and your body too; not to mention your mind, heart and soul). Mystic music remains true to the original purpose of music: to help us contact the spiritual dimensions of life and reveal the secret to us; and to, keep the spirit alive (Nasr, 1997) 1.1.4 Effects of Music Music holds a very significant position in our lives since the beginning.From the early beginning to the present day,interest in music with reference to healing and therapeautic experiece has sustained (Bartlett ,1996) The qualities of music were known even in earliest times. Evidence suggests that dance and song preceded speech. Researchers have found that about two-thirds of the inner ears cilia resonate only at the higher frequencies that are commonly found in music (3,000 20,000 Hz). This seems to indicate that primitive humans communicated primarily through song or tone.India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world, references to Indian classical music (marga) can be found in the ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas (Wikipedia). There are references to the divine alliance of music and medicine in classical antiquity and the healing function of much among primitive people (Schullian and Schoen,1948). Recent work on music has confirmed the effectiveness of music too. This is of the fact that music can trigger Endorphins in human body that help the mind in creating sound images,allowing people to escape into a painless worlds sheltered by their imaginations. Music can speed up or slow,regularize or disturb our heart beat,relax or tense the nerves,can affect digestion,respiration and blood pressure(Tame,1984) Ansdell(1995) says that we make and experience music because or body is made up of cells,organs,and muscles that have pulses and tones,tensions and resolutions of the tensions.Emotions share with music the qualities of speed force attack and intensity.It has also been suggested that music could be a powerful tool to use within neuro-disability and the structure of music can help organize and retrieve information. (Taylor, 1992). In many instances it has been found that people with brain related problems were able to function in better ways while being exposed to music. (Erdonmez, 1993; Nordoff Robbins, 1997). Mc Carty (1999) described how music could reduce negative emotions and increase positive emotions in healthy as well as clinically ill people. In the words of Janet Towell(2000), Music can soothe the soul, excite the emotions and provide a sense of cultural identity. Music can decrease pain and depression while increasing mood and self esteem. A study showed that tempo affected arousal while mode of the music affected the mood (Husain, Thompson Schelenburg, 2002). Well ness is a product of healthy body, mind, spirit interactions, and, as a result music can an important asset in creating the appropriate environment for persons healing (Stewart, 1990).Musics appeal to us is primarily emotional and psychological. Music has been noted for its ability to enhance peoples moods, move them to tears, make them want to rejoice or just move them emotionally in both negative and positive ways (Goldstein, A, 1980). Radocy and Boyle(1979) suggest that there are eight types of affective responses to music.Some of these relate to an innate sensory perception of the sound while others are associted with images,experiences and emotional context of these experiences.These responses may include simple feelings;negative and positive organic feelins;moral religious feelings and emotions and tempraments.Because of this entity,music often can help people in confronting issues which they have not dealt earlier in their lives.This is because of the association between the events of our past with the particular piece of music (Bright ,1993;Levine , 1999;Ortiz ,1997). Stewart(1990) believes that music is an affective therapeutic agent under the right circumstances as it can allign patterns of emotion,structures of conciousness and /or psychic energy (P.62).It does not appeal to logic and rarely meets with intellectual resistence to iniciate its actions(Guzzetta , 1995).Music can help us to initiate psychological movement by modifying our mental states and cuing us towards more positive affirmations such as sad to cheerfull,discouraged to hopefull,or plain to peaceful.Music has an essential ability to create another world of virtual time(Blaking,1990).Menuhin(1972) reveals furthur that Music creates order out of chaos, for rhythm imposes unanimity upon the divergent ,melody imposes continuity among the disjointed,and harmony imposes compatibility among the incongruous.Listening to music can create and expand out internal space where we can retreat from the norms and the reality of the world.This is achieved by creating an internal imaginative world of sound which is rich in symbolism and personal meaning,and allowing us to revisit the emotional context of particular memories(Bunt,1996). According to Sloboda(1989) ,the reason most of us take part in musical activities is that music is capable of arousing in us deep and significant emotions.These emotions range from the aeshetic delight in sound construction,through emtions such as joy or sorrow which music sometimes enhances to simple relief from boredom of depression.The music itself cannot have extra musical meaning unless the experience to which it refers already exists in the mind of the listener.When music has similar connections with human life,then it can make people more aware of feelings they experienced by intensifying the emotions.Particular music can help in moving painful memories or the unresolved issues in life .Stor(1992) also refers this arousal as being a condition of heightned alertness,awareness,interest and excitement.He also believes that apart from the relations between seeing an emotional arousal,the relation between hearing and emotional arousal is stronger. Campball(1992), observed that when we communcate with the emotional centres of our being such as through the use of music,we can better reduce stress and achieve a sense of welbeing.Music can also help in achieving peace and relaxation (Ortiz ,1997). Diamond (1979) suggests that music can be an important part of primary preventative health care at a psychosocial level. Bunt(1996) shows that how music can be used to assist people in realizing their feelings, going beyond their everyday experiences, resolving hurts and pain and appraising significant live events. Music can also evoke memories of the emotional context of past events and times and aid people to explore issues for a different angle and retrieving events and emotions. Music evokes not only the memories of past time but also the emotional context of those times(Bunt,1997).It has been reported that music is an activity that the healthy impaired talented and interested enjoy, because it provides them with a relief from their stress ,anxiety, depression and mourning(Blacking,1995).Music coupled with personal attention and care of other people, can provide gratification and restore a sense of worth to people who may be experiencing depression or low self-esteem (Crystal, Grober Masur,1989). According to Spingte (1998), music is the most intense means of emotional communication. In view of Hallan, S Price, J. (1998), calming music led to better participant performance on arithmetic and memory tasks. Music can align patterns of emotions, structures of consciousness and / or psychic energy (Stewart, 1990). Thus, music has great influences on a listener. It can take the mind and body to do spontaneous things whether they are good or bad. Depending on the type of music and the inner message it has, music can influence a person and his/her actions (Cassidy, 2008). Happiness There has been a surge of interest in Positive Psychology during the last quarter of this century. There has been a huge amount of interest and research on happiness, wellbeing and satisfaction among all positive fields (Diener 1995).The classic definition of happiness by Jeremy Bentham(1800s) is that happiness is the sum of pleasures and pains. Happiness  is a state of mind or feeling characterized by contentment, love, satisfaction, pleasure, or  joy.It is a positive emotional state that is defined by every person on a subjective level. The term subjective well-being is used as a synonym for happiness. Happiness is defined as an overall appraisal of life, where the good and the bad is balanced (Diener Scolon, 2003). Happiness in this older sense was used to translate the Greek Eudemonia, and is still used in virtue ethics.(Wikipedia). Happiness is a belief about yourself and the outside world. You can be doing something you normally experience as pleasurable but not be happy. Pleasure is born from the external world; happiness is born from the internal workings of our own minds. Martin Seligman,( 2002) one of the founders of positive psychology, describes happiness as consisting of positive emotions and positive activities. He categorizes emotions related to the past, present and future. Positive emotions relating to the past include satisfaction, contentment, pride and serenity. Positive emotions relating to the future include optimism, hope and trust. Veenhoven (1997) has defined happiness or subjective well-being as the degree to which one judges the quality of his life favorably. According to Schwartz and Strack (1999), even very minor incidents in life can affect the level of happiness. The findings of a Pakistani research have shown that number of happy people is more than that of unhappy people and that the eastern people have higher levels of happiness than western people. Work satisfaction, social support, religious affiliation, social class, income level, and marital status and satisfaction were found to be predictors of happiness (Suhail, Chaudary, 2004).Individual differences in the levels of happiness also have significance. Theories of happiness The theories of happiness have been divided into three types, Need/goal satisfaction theories, Process/activity theories, Genetic/personality predisposition theories (Diener et al, 2002). Psychoanalytic and humanistic theorists believed that reduction in tension and satisfaction of needs lead to the achievement of happiness. It was theorized that people were happy as they had achieved their goals. (Compton, 2005). According to the process/activity theorists, participating in activities generates happiness. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) proposed that people who indulge in interesting and challenging activities, and thus experience the feelings of flow, are happier. Emmons (1986) has also emphasized how pursuing goals generates happiness. The genetic/personality theorists view happiness as a stable construct. A Research by Costa and McCrae (1986) proved that happiness is based on personality and genetics. Lucas (1996) also found in a research that personality traits were closely related to happiness. Keyes and Lopez (1995) presented another model of happiness. They defined happiness as a complete state of mental health while combining many principles of pleasure. They defined emotional happiness as the presence of positive affect and life satisfaction with the absence of negative affect. Social happiness was achieved by incorporating acceptance, actualization, contribution, coherence and integration. However, self acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy and positive relations with others were the components of achieving psychological well-being, Most of recent researches agree with idea of happiness being a combination of psychological, emotional, and physical well-being. Causes of Happiness Sex: No significant differences have been seen between the levels of happiness of men and women (Nolen-Hoeksema Rusting, 1999).In a study by Wood,Rhodes Whelan (1989), it was found that women report slightly higher levels of happiness. Fujita, Diener Sandvick (1991) also reported that women showed greater capacity for joy. Shayam and Yadev (2006) found that elderly men scored higher on well-being as compared to elderly women. However the impact of gender accounts for only 1 percent of variability in happiness in people. Finances: Financial status is related to happiness, however with an increase the effect diminishes (Diener, 1997).Diener (1995) found that positive correlations existed between the GDP and subjective well being of fifty five nations. According to Keely,(2000) increase in income does not lead to increase in happiness.Most people are happy regardless of their material wealth(Diener , 1996). Marital status: Research has shown that married people are happier as compared to unmarried, divorced, separated or widowed people. Shields Wooden (2003) found that married women and men were consistently happier than unmarried men and women. Education: Education has greater affect on the happiness levels of people with lower incomes (Campbell, 1976).Education appears to have only small direct influence on happiness. Culture: Diener Lucas (1999) found that some nations appear to be more emotional than other nations. It was found that people in individualistic cultures had higher subjective well-being as compared to collectivistic cultures. (Ball, 2001). Health: Physical health is strongly related to levels of happiness. If one is physically healthy he/she would have higher levels of happiness as compared to a person who is sick. According to physicians, Brief, Butcher, George Link (1993) a strong correlation exists between subjective well-being and health. Religion: Many researches support that people who are religious tend to be happier. Studies have found that engagement in religious activities is significantly related to higher well-being (Donahue Benson, 1995).James Peacock and Margret Poloma (1999) found that ones perceived closeness to God was a very strong predictor of happiness. Life Events: The number of positive events correlate with positive affect at .33 in people whereas, the average intensity of positive affect when subjects were feeling happy correlated with happiness at .25 (Schimmack, Diener Oishi 2002).Happiness correlate with a number of friends and the relationships with them (Diener Lucas, 1999).Peak experiences however have been found to be due to religion music or other intense activities. Thus, immense research has been done on the effects of music on physical as well as mental health which has shown promising results.

Different Views On Motivation Education Essay

Different Views On Motivation Education Essay Motivation, a psychological feature can be defined as the direction and intensity of ones effort (Sage, 1977). In short, the direction of ones effort alludes to an individual is attracted to a certain situation, for example the student may be motivated to go out for a soccer team. Whereas, the intensity of ones effort refers to how much effort a person put forward in a particular situation, for example a student may attend physical education class but do not put effort during class. The relationship of direction and intensity of efforts are directly related, typically a student who seldom miss training lesson will usually put in more effort during participation. Different views on motivation There are generally 3 different types of views on how motivation works, typically the trait-centered, the situation centered, and the interactional. The trait centered view refers to a motivated behavior actually comes from individual character. The personality, needs, interests and goals are some of the component that determines a motivated behavior. The situation centered views sees motivation as an influence of a certain situation. A student may be unmotivated in attending soccer training but motivated to play for the school soccer team. The last view of motivation which is widely endorsed by sport psychologists is the interactional view, this view actually combines the trait centered views and situation centered views to form a new view. An interactional view of motivation study was conducted by Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978) on 44 male and 33 female swimmers in universities, testing them on a 200 yard individual event and then a part of a relay team. The study has shown that kno wing the swimmers personal characteristics (trait centered view) was not the best way to predict the behavior (individual best split time), because the performance also depended on the situation like whether it is relay or individual race (situation centered view) (Brewer B, ,2009)3. Achievement motivation and Competitiveness In sport, achievement motivation and competitiveness are known to be able to influence performance and participation. Achievement motivation is defined as a persons efforts to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacles, perform better than others, taking pride in exercising talent (Murray, 1938). It allows athletes, exercisers, students to achieve excellence, to gain high levels of fitness and to maximize learning respectively. Achievement motivation is also an inclusive of trait view, situation view and interactional view of a motivation of a person. Competitiveness, on the other hand is defined as disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others (Martens, 1976). Both deal not just with the final outcome but also the journey of getting to the final outcomes. Own motivation experience I am interested in the concept of motivation because due to my own personal account. I am currently a contract Physical education (PE) teacher with Ministry of Education. In 2 months time (June 2010), I will be going to National Institute of Education (NIE) in Nanyang Technological University to train as a PE teacher. However to be admitted into NIE, I need to pass a physical proficiency test (PPT) conducted by NIE Physical Education and Sports Science. The PPT comprises of 5 different stations, namely the agility run, badminton, possession game, gymnastic and swimming. To pass the PPT, a candidate must achieve the following: a. A score a total of 9 points or more in the test. b. Does not fail any station. To date, I have taken the PPT twice, but failed to pass the agility run station both time, the minimum passing time for the station for male runner is less than 17.7 sec. Even though, I am very disappointed, but I am very determined and motivated to take and pass the test again. Hence, the achievement motivation (Wikipedia, Jan 2010)2. for this PPT has influence a wide variety of my current behaviors, thoughts and feeling for example. Choice of activity (seeking out runners of greater ability to learn with them the correct techniques). Effort to purse goals (I have been practicing for every alternate days) Intensity of effort in the pursuit of goals. (To do 25 mins sprinting, mobility, warms up before the run.) Persistence in the face of failure and adversity (When I still not able to run within the 17.7 secs, I will work harder, to try new ways to run the test.) In short, with the understanding of the 4 theories of achievement motivation, I (considering myself as low achievers) have summaries the major predication from each theory and hoped to use them to guide my own practice to pass my PPT in march 2010. Low achiever Motivation orientation High motivation to avoid failure (Need to pass PPT) Attributions Ascribes failure to stable and internal factors within my control. (Dry testing field, well prepared) Goal adopted Outcome goals (Pass PPT) Perceived competence and control Low perceived competence and believes achievement is outside own control. (To date, still cannot clear 17.7 sec) Task choice Seeks out difficult challenges (Pass PPT, to become PE teacher) Performance conditions Performs poorly in evaluative conditions Four theories of achievement motivation Over the years, four main theories were evolved to explain motivation in people, they are the need achievement theory, attribution theory, achievement goal theory and competence motivation theory. Need achievement theory Need achievement theory (Atkinson 1974; MClelland, 1961) has 5 components which include personality factors, situational factors, resultant tendencies, emotional reactions, and achievement related behaviors. These components serve as the framework to predict task preferences and performance outcomes. Achievement related behavior results from the interaction of the other four components (high achievers tend to perform better when evaluated and select challenging tasks with intermediate risks; low achievers tend to avoid risky and challenging tasks, and perform less well when evaluated). Attribution theory This theory focus on the explanations that people tend to make to explain success or failure (Heider, 1958, Weiner 1985, 1986). The theory has 3 main categories, they are stability, locus of causality and locus of control. Stability refers the cause of the success or failure may be either stable or unstable. If the we believe the cause is stable, then the outcome is likely to be the same if we perform the same behavior on another occasion. If it is unstable, the outcome is likely to be different on another occasion.. Locus of causality refers to the cause of the success or failure may be internal or external. That is, we may succeed or fail because of factors that we believe have their origin within us or because of factors that originate in our environment. Locus of control refers to the cause of the success or failure may be either controllable or uncontrollable. A controllable factor is one which we believe we ourselves can alter if we wish to do so. An uncontrollable factor is on e that we do not believe we can easily alter. The most important contribution of the theory is it explains the attributions affect expectations of future success or failure and emotional reactions (Biddle, Hanrahan Sellars, 2001; McAuley, 1993b). Achievement goal theory According to this theory three factors interact to determine a persons motivation: Achievement goals, Perceived ability, Achievement behavior. This theory also indicates that individuals in achievement settings are typically oriented to one of two goals either task goal or outcome goal. When determining whether or not they have been successful in these contexts. Someone may have an task goal orientation where they only focuses on comparing performance with personal standards and personal improvement Others may have an outcome orientation that focuses on comparing performance with and defeating others, Competence motivation theory A theory of achievement motivation based on a persons feelings of personal competence. According to the theory, competence motivation increases when a person successfully masters a task. This encourages the person to master more tasks (Weiss Chaumeton, 1992). For example, a young high self-esteem soccer player believes that he has control over the learning and performance of skills, then the efforts to learn the game will increase his pride and happiness, this will in turn lead to increased motivation. An analysis of the relationships between the four theories Based on the book (Weinberg, R.S., Gould, D. (Eds), 2007)1, the 4 theories of achievement motivation are able to work together and give a clear predication of the motivational behavior for high and low achievers. The table below establishs how high and low achievers vary in terms of their motivationals orientation, attributions, the goals, their task choices, their perceived competence and control, and their performance. High achiever Low achiever Motivation orientation High motivation to achieve success Low motivation to aviod future Focus on the pride of sucess Low motivation to achieve success High motivation to aviod future Focus on shame and worry that may result from failure Attributions Ascribes success to stable and internal factors within ones control Ascribes failure to unstable and external factors outside ones control Ascribes success to unstable and external factors outside ones control Ascribes failure to stable and internal factors within ones control Goal adopted Adopts task goals Adopts outcome goals Perceived competence and control High perceived competence and believes achievement is within ones control Low perceived competence and believes achievement is outside own control. Task choice Seeks out challenges and able comptitors and tasks Aviod challenges; seeks out very diffcult or very easy tasks and competitors Performance conditions Performs well in evaluative conditions Performs poorly in evaluative conditions In contast, high achievers normally embrace task goals and are fully aware of their own ability and control. They believe success is due to stable and internal factors like high skill and they see failure is due to unstable and control factors like low efforts, they always have a positive and optimistic attitude. For example, someone who has a positive attitude always focuses on opportunities rather than on potential drawbacks. They focus on solutions rather than on problems. Low achievers usually have low ability and control, believing on more outcome goals and credit success to luck and ease of the task, they blame failure due to low ability. They always have negative attitudes most of the time. For example, they focus on the possible drawbacks rather than on opportunities. The low achievers tend to dive in and find problems when others find solutions. In summary, with the results tabled above, parents, teachers and coaches are able indentify the personal and situation factors in influencing achievement behavior for different individuals (for high and low achievers). They are able to emphasize task or master goals instead of outocme goals for different individuals. They are also need to assess and correct inappropriate individuals attributions and enhance perceptions of competence and control. And finally, helping different individuals to decide when to compete and when to focus on individual improvement.

The Transmission of Diseases from Livestock :: History Disease Health Medical Essays

The Transmission of Diseases from Livestock The signs at the Philadelphia International Airport are bold and make a clear point. The bright, yellow billboards all but shout: "Keep Foot and Mouth Disease out of America." Soon after seeing these signs upon entrance to the airport, travelers are greeted by customs agents who check documentation and bags to insure that the traveler has not been prone to the disease on his journeys. Any traveler exhibiting the warning signs of an individual who carries the disease is quickly swept away- removed from the general populace in order to prevent possible spreading of the disease. The above precautions may seem extreme. Then again, the precautions may appear normal in a world that has quickly strengthened airport security in response to recent terrorist activities. Neither of these reactions to the security checks would be fully accurate. The security checks preventing free entrance by individuals who have come into contact with animals or areas that house animals abroad are an innovation designed to prevent the most common method for spreading disease. These precautions have been implemented in order to prevent the spread of diseases infecting livestock. Throughout the course of history, diseases have been the greatest killers of humans. In fact, the winners of most wars were simply the ones who proved less susceptible to the germs carried by the enemy (Diamond, p. 197). Diamond correctly points out, then, that diseases have been the largest shaper of history. For instance, what would the world look like now if the Native Americans had carried germs that were far more potent than the Spanish conquistadors? (p. 197) The diseases that have been the great molders of the human experience are very often and quite easily traced back to animals, specifically livestock. Food production was seen relatively early in history of civilization as a better means for providing for a great number of people than the hunter-gatherer model that was once the primary model of existence. The success of food production in maintenance of human life leads to a society which has become dependant on farming, ranching, and other ways of life that produce foods from animals. The increased number of individuals able to be supported by a society supported by agriculture serves as an important factor in the spreading of disease. The most common method for spread of disease is direct transmittance from the animals to the humans.

Label Pro :: Essays Papers

Label Pro Gerri, The information on the manual is highlighted in yellow. LabelPro 3.0 for Windows Welcome to LabelPro 3.0, designed to take full advantage of the Windows 95/Windows NT 4.0 User Interface. LabelPro 3.0 comes with Win32s to allow it to work with Windows 3.1x as well. New Features in this Version: 1. Start Up Dialog: Helps you decide what task you want to accomplish . 2. Quick Input Assistant. Provides you pre-designed templates that are already linked with lists. All you do is enter the data and print. For example, an address label laid out in standard format. Its list contains fields for name, address, city, state and zip. All you do is enter the data and print. 3. Design Strategy dialog. Allows you to select what list, if any, you want to use with the design you are about to create. 4. Automatic Quick Step help provides brief instructions for the major dialogs in LabelPro. 5. Full Page Print Preview. 6. Re-designed merge fields dialog is easier to use and features an Undo button, if you change your mind. 7. Graphics Preview: You can now see a thumbnail of the selected graphic in the Open dialog. 8. Vertical text spread. You can now space your text evenly from the top to the bottom of a text box. On-line Help - Context-sensitive Help is available for menu commands by pressing the F1 key. - QuickSteps are available for most LabelPro dialogs. They are short instructions to help walk you through basic tasks. - On-line Help provides comprehensive procedures for LabelPro's tasks as well as a lot of other information. Product and Dealer Information Avery’s Consumer Service Centers provide product information for all Avery products. Call the Consumer Service Center to find where to purchase Avery products. Avery Technical Support Avery provides technical support by telephone for Avery software products including LabelPro. Avery support is also available on CompuServe (go avery). If you have a question about an Avery software product, and you cannot find the answer in the on-line help, call Avery Technical Support. Before you telephone Avery Technical Support, you should be at your computer with LabelPro running.

Cordell Hull: The hero of peace behind the scene Essay

Cordell Hull, a Tennessee native, October 2, 1871; son of William and Elizabeth (Riley) Hull; was considered one of America’s greatest Secretary of States. Prior to becoming Secretary of State in President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s cabinet, where he served during the very critical years of the Great Depression and World War II, 1933 to 1944, he was a U.S. Senator and congressman for 24 years. As a young army captain he fought in the Spanish-American War of 1898. Cordell Hull’s most remarkable achievements were in the area of international economics where his special knowledge in that field left a lasting impact on the United States’ relations with other countries for many years after he died. He had dealt with the threats of war with the axis powers, the merit of the U.S. assuming the role of an isolationist nation by avoiding foreign entanglements, and the conciliation of aggressive nations in Europe and Asia. Hull advocated the revival of world trade as a key means for lifting the country out of the depression and as a way to attain global peace. His influence upon Congress to do away with high protective tariffs were enormous and he lobbied for the passage of Reciprocal Trade Agreements in 1934. Tariffs were reduced on certain goods up to 50% through special treaties, granting â€Å"most-favored-nation† terms with friendly nation anxious to do business with the U.S. Hull also created the Export-Import Bank, a government agency that allowed nations to borrow money in order to buy American products. In the interest of peace he helped start the United Nations. Franklin D. Roosevelt called him the â€Å"Father of the United Nations.† (Resnick 70) The man of peace Cordell Hull has devoted his entire life to the stabilization of international relations, best known to the public as his untiring efforts in the field of commercial policy, efforts inspired by his desire to counteract autarchic tendencies both in the U.S.A. and abroad. Of these efforts, which considerably influenced national policies during the period between the wars and especially at the end of the twenties, he says: â€Å"there can be no real progress toward confidence or peace or permanent trade recovery while retaliations and bitter trade controversies rage.† Confidence and peace between nations have constituted his goal in all spheres of his activity. This is the driving spirit behind this fight against isolationism at home, his efforts to create a peace bloc of States on the American continents, and his work for the United Nation Organization.   Hull reopened the question of taxation, after the victory of the democrats in 1912, managed to secure the introduction of income tax. He certainly saw it as a means of increasing federal income, but his first concern was with the effects of this tax as against those of the tariffs. He was convinced that protectionism created monopoly and enriched the few at the expense of the many, and that such system could not be reconciled with the free competition in which he believed. By the end of the war, his view on economic policy could be expressed as follows: High tariffs are barriers obstructing the development of trade and friendship between nations, thereby becoming barriers also to lasting international peace. As early as 1917, he put forward the idea of an international agreement to govern the methods employed in commercial competition. The task of reducing trade restrictions was taken up in the League of Nations and the basis for the work of the following years established at the great world conference in 1927 at Geneva. The culmination of these efforts was the World Economic Conference in London in 1933 which Hull himself attended, this time as secretary of state which ended as failure. It may think it was a mistake to lay so much stress on the question of stabilization of currency form the very beginning; it was then that led to Roosevelt’s famous telegram in which he rejected the plan for currency stabilization on the grounds that, a nation’s prosperity depends more upon a healthy internal economic structure than it does upon the price of its currency in relation to the price of currencies of other nations. This attitude, which prevailed in the United States, brought Hull’s work in this direction to a halt. Yet Hull did not give up, even though the London conference was a setback for his ideas. Despite this failure, in November of that year he headed the American Delegation to the Seventh Pan-American Conference, held in Montevideo, and won the trust of the Latin American diplomats, laying the foundation for the â€Å"Good Neighbor† Policy, followed up in the Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace held in Buenos Aires (1936) , the eighth Pan- American Conference in Lima (1938), the second consecutive Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the American Republics in Havana (1940) (Haberman 289). Father of income tax Cordell Hull was the principal architect of the Income Tax of 1913. In structuring this tax, he used as his prototype the Income Tax of 1894. He believed that a tax on consumption unjustly burdened the working people. He aspired to create an institutional structure that would shift the burden from those citizens with the least ability to pay with the ones with the most. Given authority through the Trade Agreements Act of 1934, he negotiated reciprocal trade agreements with numerous countries, lowering tariffs and stimulating trade. He secured the passage of a bill empowering the president to lower tariffs by fifty percent and to reduce import restrictions for countries prepared to grant similar concessions to the United States. He was eventually able to conclude no fewer than twenty-seven trade agreements on the basis of this bill (Joseph 187). This law, which was subject to a time limitation, was last renewed in 1945 and authorized the president to reduce tariffs by forty-five percent. This was, of course, materialized after Hull had retired, but it represented nevertheless a victory for his policy. All of this marked a radical change in the economic policy of the United States; it is an affirmation of England’s policy during the free trade period, taking as a model the Cobden Treaty of 1860 of which the most favored nation clause formed an integral part. Although the change is partly due to the acceptance of the United States as a creditor nation, it signifies something more profound for Hull: it is his immutable belief that it will clear the way for improved international relations and remove one of the causes of war . Hull attacked not only the tariff bill but the whole theory of protection. In particular, he attempted to point out what he considered to be the fallacy of protection for the American farmer. He told the House that 334,000,000 acres of land in the United States were planted, in 1928, to crops valued at $7,000,000,000, which actually got some benefit form tariff protection. The conclusion he drew from these statistics was that, under any system of tariffs designed to protect the farmer against foreign competition, only an infinitesimal percentage of American agriculture could benefit, by the very nature of American production, consisting so largely, in acreage and value, of commodities such as corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, cotton, tobacco, and fruits, of which large surpluses were exported every year and which had nothing to fear from competitive imports. Hulls claimed that the general tariff rates, which the Republicans were trying to boost, were already higher that those of any country except Spain and that the United States stood twelfth among the nations of the world in per capita exports and only fourteenth in per capita imports .   The principles of Montevideo, including the abrogation of the Platt Amendment, the new treaty with Panama, the withdrawal of the marines from Haiti, and progress on the inter-American highway. The sum total of the accomplishments was among the contribution of the greatest nation in the world to the maintenance and promotion of peace throughout a world which gave every evidence of tottering on the brick of war (Hinton 187). Father of United Nation After World War II broke out in Europe he asked for support to the Allies and recommended the revision of the Neutrality Act, which kept the United States out of being involved in the warfare. After U.S. involvement in war, he worked to develop cooperation among the Allies, through his visits in Moscow in 1943, and started to create a peace plan that supported the establishment of a world organization to maintain peace. Knowing that Woodrow Wilson’s League of Nations did not succeed, in part, because of political partisanship in the United States, Hull led successful conventions on the formulation of a new international organization and submitted the â€Å"Charter of the United Nations† in August, 1943. Before the Charter could even be approved in 1944 in San Francisco, Hull had to resign office due to weakening health. Tuberculosis and heart disease were his hindrance for him to continue his work to which Hull was used to. The Roosevelt administration received much of the attention and praise for the establishment of the United Nations, owed and giving much of the credit to Hull. Before Hull resigned in November of 1944, Roosevelt offered Hull the opportunity to run as his vice president, which Hull declined because of his health condition. Roosevelt was so grateful to Hull that he nominated his Secretary of State for the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1945, the Nobel Committee awarded Cordell Hull the Prize for his work in the Western Hemispheres, for his remarkable work on International Trade Agreements, and for his hard work in establishing the United Nations (â€Å"Cordell Hull: 1945†). Works Cited Cordell Hull 1945. 1 December 2007 http://www.cordellhullmuseum.com/about.htm Haberman, Frederick W. Nobel Lectures in Peace. World Scientific, 1999. Hinton, Harold B. Cordell Hull – a Biography. READ BOOKS, 2007. Joseph, Richard J. The Origins of the American Income Tax: The Revenue Act of 1894 and Its Aftermath. Syracuse University Press, 2004. Resnick, Abraham. They Too Influenced a Nation’s History: The Unique Contributions of 105 Lesser-Known Americans. iUniverse, 2003.